Abatzoglou, J. T. et al. Climate change has increased the odds of extreme regional forest fire years globally. Nat. Commun. 16, 6390 (2025).
Jain, P., Castellanos-Acuna, D., Coogan, S. C. P., Abatzoglou, J. T. & Flannigan, M. D. Observed increases in extreme fire weather driven by atmospheric humidity and temperature. Nat. Clim. Chang. 12, 63–70 (2022).
Xu, R. et al. Wildfires, global climate change, and human health. N. Engl. J. Med. 383, 2173–2181 (2020).
Chen, G. et al. Mortality risk attributable to wildfire-related PM2.5 pollution: a global time series study in 749 locations. Lancet Planet. Health 5, e579–e587 (2021).
Picciotto, S. et al. Pregnancy exposure to PM2.5 from wildland fire smoke and preterm birth in California. Environ. Int. 186, 108583 (2024).
Xu, R. et al. Global, regional, and national mortality burden attributable to air pollution from landscape fires: a health impact assessment study. Lancet 404, 2447–2459 (2024).
Spoto, F., Dominici, F., Braun, D. & Casey, J. A. Long-term impact of fine particulate matter on mortality is exacerbated when wildfire events occur. Am. J. Epidemiol. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwaf278 (2025).
Klepeis, N. E. et al. The National Human Activity Pattern Survey (NHAPS): a resource for assessing exposure to environmental pollutants. J. Expo. Anal. Environ. Epidemiol. 11, 231–252 (2001).
Duan, X. Exposure Factors Handbook of Chinese Population (China Environmental Science Press, 2013).
Walker, E. S., Stewart, T. & Jones, D. Fine particulate matter infiltration at Western Montana residences during wildfire season. Sci. Total Environ. 896, 165238 (2023).
Liang, Y. et al. Wildfire smoke impacts on indoor air quality assessed using crowdsourced data in California. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 118, e2106478118 (2021).
Reisen, F. et al. Impact of smoke from biomass burning on air quality in rural communities in southern Australia. Atmos. Environ. 45, 3944–3953 (2011).
Han, D., Guo, Y., Wang, J. & Zhao, B. Global disparities in indoor wildfire-PM2.5 exposure and mitigation costs. Sci. Adv. 11, eads4360 (2025).
Xiang, J. et al. Field measurements of PM2.5 infiltration factor and portable air cleaner effectiveness during wildfire episodes in US residences. Sci. Total Environ. 773, 145642 (2021).
Fisk, W. J. & Chan, W. R. Health benefits and costs of filtration interventions that reduce indoor exposure to PM2.5 during wildfires. Indoor Air 27, 191–204 (2017).
Barn, P. K. et al. Portable air cleaners should be at the forefront of the public health response to landscape fire smoke. Environ. Health 15, 116 (2016).
Schollaert, C. L. et al. Quantifying the smoke-related public health trade-offs of forest management. Nat. Sustain. 7, 130–139 (2024).
Rajagopalan, S. et al. Personal-level protective actions against particulate matter air pollution exposure: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation 142, e411–e431 (2020).
Zhang, A., Liu, Y., Ji, J. S. & Zhao, B. Air purifier intervention to remove indoor PM2.5 in urban China: a cost-effectiveness and health inequality impact study. Environ. Sci. Technol. 57, 4492–4503 (2023).
Liu, Y., Zhou, B., Wang, J. & Zhao, B. Health benefits and cost of using air purifiers to reduce exposure to ambient fine particulate pollution in China. J. Hazard. Mater. 414, 125540 (2021).
Adibi, A. et al. High-efficiency particulate air filters for preventing wildfire-related asthma complications: a cost-effectiveness study. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 209, 175–184 (2024).
World Health Organization. WHO global air quality guidelines: particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide (2021).
Marseille, E., Larson, B., Kazi, D. S., Kahn, J. G. & Rosen, S. Thresholds for the cost–effectiveness of interventions: alternative approaches. Bull. World Health Organ. 93, 118–124 (2015).
Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation (IHME). GBD Results – VizHub. https://vizhub.healthdata.org/gbd-results/ (2024).
Johnston, F. H. et al. Unprecedented health costs of smoke-related PM2.5 from the 2019–20 Australian megafires. Nat. Sustain. 4, 42–47 (2021).
Wu, Y. et al. Wildfire-related PM2.5 and health economic loss of mortality in Brazil. Environ. Int. 174, 107906 (2023).
Burke, M. et al. The contribution of wildfire to PM2.5 trends in the USA. Nature 622, 761–766 (2023).
Zhang, Y. et al. Respiratory risks from wildfire-specific PM2.5 across multiple countries and territories. Nat. Sustain. 8, 474–484 (2025).
Li, C. et al. Reversal of trends in global fine particulate matter air pollution. Nat. Commun. 14, 5349 (2023).
Zhao, J. et al. Global warming amplifies wildfire health burden and reshapes inequality. Nature 647, 928–934 (2025).
World Health Organization. A Global Health Strategy for 2025–2028- advancing equity and resilience in a turbulent world: Fourteenth General Programme of Work (2025).
United Nations. THE 17 GOALS | Sustainable Development. https://sdgs.un.org/goals
Ji, W. & Zhao, B. Contribution of outdoor-originating particles, indoor-emitted particles and indoor secondary organic aerosol (SOA) to residential indoor PM2.5 concentration: a model-based estimation. Build. Environ. 90, 196–205 (2015).
Brauer, M. et al. Global burden and strength of evidence for 88 risk factors in 204 countries and 811 subnational locations, 1990–2021: a systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2021. Lancet 403, 2162–2203 (2024).
Bertram, M. Y., Lauer, J. A., Stenberg, K. & Edejer, T. T. T. Methods for the Economic Evaluation of Health Care Interventions for Priority Setting in the Health System: an update from WHO CHOICE. Int. J. Health Policy Manag. 10, 673–677 (2021).
Wu, R. & Xie, S. Spatial distribution of secondary organic aerosol formation potential in China derived from speciated anthropogenic volatile organic compound emissions. Environ. Sci. Technol. 52, 8146–8156 (2018).
Ali, M.dA. et al. Accuracy assessment of CAMS and MERRA-2 reanalysis PM2.5 and PM10 concentrations over China. Atmos. Environ. 288, 119297 (2022).
GADM. Global Administrative Areas (GADM). https://gadm.org/ (2015).
NASA Goddard Earth Sciences Data and Information Services Center. Global Modeling And Assimilation Office & Pawson, S. MERRA-2 tavg1_2d_aer_Nx: 2d,1-hourly, time-averaged, single-level, assimilation, aerosol diagnostics v5.12.4. https://doi.org/10.5067/KLICLTZ8EM9D (2015).
Jain, P., Sharma, A. R., Acuna, D. C., Abatzoglou, J. T. & Flannigan, M. Record-breaking fire weather in North America in 2021 was initiated by the Pacific northwest heat dome. Commun. Earth Environ. 5, 202 (2024).
Buchard, V. et al. The MERRA-2 aerosol reanalysis, 1980 onward. Part II: evaluation and case studies. J. Clim. https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-16-0613.1 (2017).
Jin, C., Wang, Y., Li, T. & Yuan, Q. Global validation and hybrid calibration of CAMS and MERRA-2 PM2.5 reanalysis products based on OpenAQ platform. Atmos. Environ. 274, 118972 (2022).
Research.fi. Daily surface concentration of fire related PM2.5 for 2003-2021, modelled by SILAM CTM when using the MODIS satellite data for the fire radiative power. https://research.fi/en/results/dataset/6554544b-08db-42a4-9584-933a16542af8 (2022).
Childs, M. L. et al. Daily local-level estimates of ambient wildfire smoke PM2.5 for the contiguous US. Environ. Sci. Technol. 56, 13607–13621 (2022).
Han, D. & Zhao, B. Air exchange rate for global residences: a random forest modelling study. Build. Simul. 18, 1785–1797 (2025).
Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development of the People’s Republic of China. Code for Thermal Design of Civil Building (GB 50176-2016). (2016).
bestbroadbanddeals. Worldwide electricity pricing | energy cost per KWh in 230 countries. https://bestbroadbanddeals.co.uk/energy/worldwide-pricing/
Sims, K. et al. LandScan Global 2022. Oak Ridge National Laboratory https://doi.org/10.48690/1529167 (2022).
Kummu, M., Kosonen, M. & Masoumzadeh Sayyar, S. Downscaled gridded global dataset for gross domestic product (GDP) per capita PPP over 1990–2022. Sci. Data 12, 178 (2025).
World Bank. World bank country classifications by income level for 2024–2025. World Bank Blogs https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/world-bank-country-classifications-by-income-level-for-2024-2025 (2024).
United Nations. Standard country or area codes for statistical use (M49): Overview. United Nations Statistics Division https://unstats.un.org/unsd/methodology/m49/overview
Institute For Health Metrics And Evaluation. Global Burden of Disease study 2021 (GBD 2021) air pollution exposure estimates 1990–2021. Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation https://doi.org/10.6069/VKDR-QY60 (2024).
Dockery, D. W. & Spengler, J. D. Indoor-outdoor relationships of respirable sulfates and particles. Atmos. Environ. 15, 335–343 (1981).
Docin. Reference life table of economic life of common equipment (Chinese Edition). (2017).
GBD 2019 Risk Factors Collaborators. Global burden of 87 risk factors in 204 countries and territories, 1990-2019: A systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2019. Lancet 396, 1223–1249 (2020).
Han, D. & Zhao, B. Health and economic assessment of air purifier intervention. Zenodo https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.18767443 (2026).
