IPCC. Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change (Cambridge Univ. Press, 2023).
Fuss, S. et al. Negative emissions — Part 2: costs, potentials and side effects. Environ. Res. Lett. 13, 063002 (2018).
Smith, P. Soil carbon sequestration and biochar as negative emission technologies. Glob. Change Biol. 22, 1315–1324 (2016).
Fuss, S. et al. Betting on negative emissions. Nat. Clim. Change 4, 850–853 (2014).
Anjos, M. F., Feijoo, F. & Sankaranarayanan, S. A multinational carbon-credit market integrating distinct national carbon allowance strategies. Appl. Energy 319, 119181 (2022).
Hartmann, J. et al. Enhanced chemical weathering as a geoengineering strategy to reduce atmospheric carbon dioxide, supply nutrients, and mitigate ocean acidification. Rev. Geophys. 51, 113–149 (2013).
Beerling, D. J. et al. Farming with crops and rocks to address global climate, food and soil security. Nat. Plants 4, 138–147 (2018).
Beerling, D. J. et al. Potential for large-scale CO2 removal via enhanced rock weathering with croplands. Nature 583, 242–248 (2020).
Goll, D. S. et al. Potential CO2 removal from enhanced weathering by ecosystem responses to powdered rock. Nat. Geosci. 14, 545–549 (2021).
Kantzas, E. P. et al. Substantial carbon drawdown potential from enhanced rock weathering in the United Kingdom. Nat. Geosci. 15, 382–389 (2022).
Jiang, L.-Q., Carter, B. R., Feely, R. A., Lauvset, S. K. & Olsen, A. Surface ocean pH and buffer capacity: past, present and future. Sci. Rep. 9, 18624 (2019).
Van Straaten, P. Farming with rocks and minerals: challenges and opportunities. An. Acad. Bras. Ciênc. 78, 731–747 (2006).
Conceição, L. T. et al. Potential of basalt dust to improve soil fertility and crop nutrition. J. Agric. Food Res. 10, 100443 (2022).
Rodrigues, M. et al. Unlocking higher yields in Urochloa brizantha: the role of basalt powder in enhancing soil nutrient availability. Discov. Soil 1, 4 (2024).
Swoboda, P., Döring, T. F. & Hamer, M. Remineralizing soils? The agricultural usage of silicate rock powders: a review. Sci. Total Environ. 807, 150976 (2022).
Kantola, I. B. et al. Improved net carbon budgets in the US midwest through direct measured impacts of enhanced weathering. Glob. Change Biol. 29, 7012–7028 (2023).
Seifritz, M. CO2 disposal by means of silicates. Nature 345, 486 (1990).
Pogge Von Strandmann, P. A. E., Tooley, C., Mulders, J. J. P. A. & Renforth, P. The dissolution of olivine added to soil at 4°C: implications for enhanced weathering in cold regions. Front. Clim. 4, 827698 (2022).
Buckingham, F. L., Henderson, G. M., Holdship, P. & Renforth, P. Soil core study indicates limited CO2 removal by enhanced weathering in dry croplands in the UK. Appl. Geochem. 147, 105482 (2022).
Vienne, A. et al. Enhanced weathering using basalt rock powder: carbon sequestration, co-benefits and risks in a mesocosm study with Solanum tuberosum. Front. Clim. 4, 869456 (2022).
Clarkson, M. O. et al. A review of measurement for quantification of carbon dioxide removal by enhanced weathering in soil. Front. Clim. 6, 1345224 (2024).
Campbell, J. et al. Measurements in Geochemical Carbon Dioxide Removal https://researchportal.hw.ac.uk/en/publications/measurements-in-geochemical-carbon-dioxide-removal (Heriot-Watt Univ., 2023).
Dupla, X. et al. in Geoengineering and Climate Change (ed. Beech, M.) 207–230 (Wiley, 2025).
Amann, T. & Hartmann, J. Carbon accounting for enhanced weathering. Front. Clim. 4, 849948 (2022).
Sutherland, K. et al. Enhanced weathering in agriculture. Isometric https://registry.isometric.com/protocol/enhanced-weathering-agriculture (2024).
Mills, J. et al. Foundations for carbon dioxide removal quantification in ERW deployments. Cascade Climate https://cascadeclimate.org/CC_Foundations%20for%20CDR%20Quantification%20in%20ERW%20Deployments.pdf (2024).
Choi, W.-J., Park, H.-J., Cai, Y. & Chang, S. X. Environmental risks in atmospheric CO2 removal using enhanced rock weathering are overlooked. Environ. Sci. Technol. 55, 9627–9629 (2021).
Levy, C. R. et al. Enhanced rock weathering for carbon removal — monitoring and mitigating potential environmental impacts on agricultural land. Environ. Sci. Technol. 58, 17215–17226 (2024).
Calabrese, S. et al. Nano- to global-scale uncertainties in terrestrial enhanced weathering. Environ. Sci. Technol. 56, 15261–15272 (2022).
Vicca, S. et al. Is the climate change mitigation effect of enhanced silicate weathering governed by biological processes? Glob. Change Biol. 28, 711–726 (2022).
Dupla, X. et al. Let the dust settle: Impact of enhanced rock weathering on soil biological, physical, and geochemical fertility. Sci. Total Environ. 954, 176297 (2024).
Manning, D. A. C., De Azevedo, A. C., Zani, C. F. & Barneze, A. S. Soil carbon management and enhanced rock weathering: the separate fates of organic and inorganic carbon. Eur. J. Soil Sci. 75, e13534 (2024).
Edwards, D. P. et al. Climate change mitigation: potential benefits and pitfalls of enhanced rock weathering in tropical agriculture. Biol. Lett. 13, 20160715 (2017).
Renforth, P. & Henderson, G. Assessing ocean alkalinity for carbon sequestration. Rev. Geophys. 55, 636–674 (2017).
Beerling, D. J. et al. Enhanced weathering in the US corn belt delivers carbon removal with agronomic benefits. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 121, e2319436121 (2024).
DIGIS Team. GEOROC compilation: rock types. GRO.data https://doi.org/10.25625/2JETOA (2023).
Walker, J. C. G., Hays, P. B. & Kasting, J. F. A negative feedback mechanism for the long-term stabilization of Earth’s surface temperature. J. Geophys. Res. 86, 9776–9782 (1981).
Hilton, R. G. & West, A. J. Mountains, erosion and the carbon cycle. Nat. Rev. Earth Env. 1, 284–299 (2020).
Jagoutz, O., Macdonald, F. A. & Royden, L. Low-latitude arc–continent collision as a driver for global cooling. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 113, 4935–4940 (2016).
Moon, S., Chamberlain, C. P. & Hilley, G. E. New estimates of silicate weathering rates and their uncertainties in global rivers. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 134, 257–274 (2014).
Zeng, S., Liu, Z. & Kaufmann, G. Sensitivity of the global carbonate weathering carbon-sink flux to climate and land-use changes. Nat. Commun. 10, 5749 (2019).
Friedlingstein, P. et al. Global carbon budget 2023. Earth Syst. Sci. Data 15, 5301–5369 (2023).
West, A., Galy, A. & Bickle, M. Tectonic and climatic controls on silicate weathering. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 235, 211–228 (2005).
Smith, S. M. et al. The State of Carbon Dioxide Removal 2nd edn https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/F85QJ (2024).
Beerling, D. J. et al. Transforming US agriculture for carbon removal with enhanced weathering. Nature https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-08429-2 (2025).
Strefler, J., Amann, T., Bauer, N., Kriegler, E. & Hartmann, J. Potential and costs of carbon dioxide removal by enhanced weathering of rocks. Environ. Res. Lett. 13, 034010 (2018).
Power, I. M. et al. Are enhanced rock weathering rates overestimated? A few geochemical and mineralogical pitfalls. Front. Clim. 6, 1510747 (2025).
Kemp, S. J., Lewis, A. L. & Rushton, J. C. Detection and quantification of low levels of carbonate mineral species using thermogravimetric-mass spectrometry to validate CO2 drawdown via enhanced rock weathering. Appl. Geochem. 146, 105465 (2022).
Knapp, W. J. & Tipper, E. T. The efficacy of enhancing carbonate weathering for carbon dioxide sequestration. Front. Clim. 4, 928215 (2022).
Renforth, P. The negative emission potential of alkaline materials. Nat. Commun. 10, 1401 (2019).
Lehmann, N. et al. Alkalinity generation from carbonate weathering in a silicate-dominated headwater catchment at Iskorasfjellet, northern Norway. Biogeosciences 20, 3459–3479 (2023).
Berner, R. A., Lasaga, A. C. & Garrels, R. M. The carbonate-silicate geochemical cycle and its effect on atmospheric carbon dioxide over the past 100 million years. Am. J. Sci. 283, 641–683 (1983).
Rijnders, J., Vienne, A. & Vicca, S. Effects of basalt, concrete fines, and steel slag on maize growth and toxic trace element accumulation in an enhanced weathering experiment. Biogeosciences 22, 2803–2829 (2025).
IPCC. 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories (IGES, 2006).
West, T. O. & McBride, A. C. The contribution of agricultural lime to carbon dioxide emissions in the United States: dissolution, transport, and net emissions. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 108, 145–154 (2005).
Cho, S. R. et al. Evaluation of the carbon dioxide (CO2) emission factor from lime applied in temperate upland soil. Geoderma 337, 742–748 (2019).
Buckingham, F. L. & Henderson, G. M. The enhanced weathering potential of a range of silicate and carbonate additions in a UK agricultural soil. Sci. Total Environ. 907, 167701 (2024).
Moosdorf, N., Renforth, P. & Hartmann, J. Carbon dioxide efficiency of terrestrial enhanced weathering. Environ. Sci. Technol. 48, 4809–4816 (2014).
Kantola, I. B., Masters, M. D., Beerling, D. J., Long, S. P. & DeLucia, E. H. Potential of global croplands and bioenergy crops for climate change mitigation through deployment for enhanced weathering. Biol. Lett. 13, 20160714 (2017).
Lewis, A. L. et al. Effects of mineralogy, chemistry and physical properties of basalts on carbon capture potential and plant-nutrient element release via enhanced weathering. Appl. Geochem. 132, 105023 (2021).
Amann, T., Hartmann, J., Hellmann, R., Pedrosa, E. T. & Malik, A. Enhanced weathering potentials — the role of in situ CO2 and grain size distribution. Front. Clim. 4, 929268 (2022).
Campbell, J. S. et al. Geochemical negative emissions technologies: part I. Review. Front. Clim. 4, 879133 (2022).
Dupla, X., Möller, B., Baveye, P. C. & Grand, S. Potential accumulation of toxic trace elements in soils during enhanced rock weathering. Eur. J. Soil. Sci. https://doi.org/10.1111/ejss.13343 (2023).
Mayes, W. M., Younger, P. L. & Aumônier, J. Hydrogeochemistry of alkaline steel slag leachates in the UK. Water Air Soil Pollut. 195, 35–50 (2008).
Piatak, N. M., Parsons, M. B. & Seal, R. R. Characteristics and environmental aspects of slag: a review. Appl. Geochem. 57, 236–266 (2015).
Webb, R. M. The Law of Enhanced Weathering for Carbon Dioxide Removal https://ssrn.com/abstract=3698944 (Sabin Center for Climate Change Law, Columbia Law School, 2020).
O’Connor, J. et al. Production, characterisation, utilisation, and beneficial soil application of steel slag: a review. J. Hazard. Mater. 419, 126478 (2021).
Renforth, P. The potential of enhanced weathering in the UK. Int. J. Greenh. Gas Control 10, 229–243 (2012).
Deng, H. et al. The environmental controls on efficiency of enhanced rock weathering in soils. Sci. Rep. 13, 9765 (2023).
Zhang, B., Kroeger, J., Planavsky, N. & Yao, Y. Techno-economic and life cycle assessment of enhanced rock weathering: a case study from the midwestern United States. Environ. Sci. Technol. 57, 13828–13837 (2023).
Siqueira Freitas, D. et al. Hidden nickel deficiency? Nickel fertilization via soil improves nitrogen metabolism and grain yield in soybean genotypes. Front. Plant Sci. 9, 614 (2018).
Shahzad, B. et al. Nickel; whether toxic or essential for plants and environment — a review. Plant Physiol. Biochem. 132, 641–651 (2018).
European Union. Consolidated text: Regulation (EU) 2019/1009 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 5 June 2019 laying down rules on the making available on the market of EU fertilising products and amending regulations (EC) No 1069/2009 and (EC) No 1107/2009 and Repealing Regulation (EC) No 2003/2003 (Text with EEA Relevance) http://data.europa.eu/eli/reg/2019/1009/2024-07-03 (2024).
Oze, C., Bird, D. K. & Fendorf, S. Genesis of hexavalent chromium from natural sources in soil and groundwater. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 104, 6544–6549 (2007).
Vithanage, M. et al. Occurrence and cycling of trace elements in ultramafic soils and their impacts on human health: a critical review. Environ. Int. 131, 104974 (2019).
Ten Berge, H. F. M. et al. Olivine weathering in soil, and its effects on growth and nutrient uptake in ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.): a pot experiment. PLoS ONE 7, e42098 (2012).
Oppon, E., Koh, S. C. L., Eufrasio, R., Nabayiga, H. & Donkor, F. Towards sustainable food production and climate change mitigation: an attributional life cycle assessment comparing industrial and basalt rock dust fertilisers. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-023-02196-4 (2023).
Power, I. M., Paulo, C. & Rausis, K. The mining industry’s role in enhanced weathering and mineralization for CO2 removal. Environ. Sci. Technol. 58, 43–53 (2024).
Madankan, M. & Renforth, P. An inventory of UK mineral resources suitable for enhanced rock weathering. Int. J. Greenh. Gas Control 130, 104010 (2023).
European Aggregates Association Annual Review 2020–2021 https://www.aggregates-europe.eu/ (UEPG, 2021).
Mitchell, C. Quarry Fines and Waste, 63–67 (2009); https://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/6290.
Hartmann, J. & Moosdorf, N. The new global lithological map database GLiM: a representation of rock properties at the Earth surface. Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst. 13, 2012GC004370 (2012).
Oppon, E., Koh, S. C. L. & Eufrasio, R. Sustainability performance of enhanced weathering across countries: a triple bottom line approach. Energy Econ. 136, 107722 (2024).
Dobiszewska, M. et al. Influence of rock dust additives as fine aggregate replacement on properties of cement composites — a review. Materials 15, 2947 (2022).
Dobiszewska, M. et al. Utilization of rock dust as cement replacement in cement composites: an alternative approach to sustainable mortar and concrete productions. J. Build. Eng. 69, 106180 (2023).
Khan, K. et al. Exploring the use of waste marble powder in concrete and predicting its strength with different advanced algorithms. Materials 15, 4108 (2022).
Kaptan, K., Cunha, S. & Aguiar, J. A review: construction and demolition waste as a novel source for CO2 reduction in portland cement production for concrete. Sustainability 16, 585 (2024).
Chowdhury, I. R., Pemberton, R. & Summerscales, J. Developments and industrial applications of basalt fibre reinforced composite materials. J. Compos. Sci. 6, 367 (2022).
Liu, Q. et al. The effect of basalt fiber addition on cement concrete: a review focused on basalt fiber shotcrete. Front. Mater. 9, 1048228 (2022).
Al-Rousan, E. T., Khalid, H. R. & Rahman, M. K. Fresh, mechanical, and durability properties of basalt fiber-reinforced concrete (BFRC): a review. Dev. Built Environ. 14, 100155 (2023).
Bell, D. S., Epihov, D. Z., Dupla, X., Beerling, D. & Leake, J. R. Enhanced rock weathering in grassland: benefits and risks of basalt rock dust to soils, forage production, and floristic diversity in a slightly acidic hay meadow. Preprint at https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4937540 (2024).
Skov, K. et al. Initial agronomic benefits of enhanced weathering using basalt: a study of spring oat in a temperate climate. PLoS ONE 19, e0295031 (2024).
Kabata-Pendias, A. & Szteke, B. Trace Elements in Abiotic and Biotic Environments (CRC Press, 2015).
Kelland, M. E. et al. Increased yield and CO2 sequestration potential with the C4 cereal Sorghum bicolor cultivated in basaltic rock dust-amended agricultural soil. Glob. Change Biol. 26, 3658–3676 (2020).
Haque, F., Santos, R. M., Dutta, A., Thimmanagari, M. & Chiang, Y. W. Co-benefits of wollastonite weathering in agriculture: CO2 sequestration and promoted plant growth. ACS Omega 4, 1425–1433 (2019).
Guo, F. et al. Improving food security and farmland carbon sequestration in China through enhanced rock weathering: field evidence and potential assessment in different humid regions. Sci. Total Environ. 903, 166118 (2023).
Obour, P. B. & Ugarte, C. M. A meta-analysis of the impact of traffic-induced compaction on soil physical properties and grain yield. Soil Tillage Res. 211, 105019 (2021).
Schneider, F. & Don, A. Root-restricting layers in German agricultural soils. Part I: Extent and cause. Plant Soil 442, 433–451 (2019).
Harbo, L. S. et al. Towards a quantitative estimate of anthropogenic subsoil compaction in European croplands based on national soil surveys. Eur. J. Soil Sci. https://doi.org/10.1111/ejss.70150 (2025).
Nunes, M. R., Denardin, J. E., Vaz, C. M. P., Karlen, D. L. & Cambardella, C. A. Lime movement through highly weathered soil profiles. Environ. Res. Commun. 1, 115002 (2019).
Bölscher, T. et al. Changes in pore networks and readily dispersible soil following structure liming of clay soils. Geoderma 390, 114948 (2021).
Manik, S. M. N. et al. Soil and crop management practices to minimize the impact of waterlogging on crop productivity. Front. Plant Sci. 10, 140 (2019).
Vorrath, M.-E. et al. Pyrogenic carbon and carbonating minerals for carbon capture and storage (PyMiCCS) part II: organic and inorganic carbon dioxide removal in an Oxisol. Front. Clim. 7, 1592454 (2025).
Dontsova, K. & Norton, L. D. Effects of exchangeable Ca:Mg ratio on soil clay flocculation, infiltration and erosion. In Sustaining the Global Farm. Selected Papers from the 10th International Soil Conservation Organization Meeting (eds Stott, D. E. et al.) 580–585 (Purdue University, 2001).
Aye, N. S., Sale, P. W. G. & Tang, C. The impact of long-term liming on soil organic carbon and aggregate stability in low-input acid soils. Biol. Fertil. Soils 52, 697–709 (2016).
Richardson, J. B. basalt rock dust amendment on soil health properties and inorganic nutrients — laboratory and field study at two organic farm soils in new England, USA. Agriculture 15, 52 (2024).
Deng, A. et al. Clay mineralogical and geochemical responses to weathering of intrusive vs. extrusive rocks under a subtropical climate. Appl. Clay Sci. 264, 107644 (2025).
Hong, H. et al. Clay mineral evolution and formation of intermediate phases during pedogenesis on picrite basalt bedrock under temperate conditions (Yunnan, southwestern China). CATENA 220, 106677 (2023).
Kahnt, G., Pfleiderer, H. & Hijazi, L. A. Wirkungen meliorativer Gaben von Gesteinsmehlen und Gesteinssanden auf das Wachstum verschiedener landwirtschaftlicher Kulturpflanzen sowie auf physikalische Kennwerte eines Sandbodens und eines Tonbodens. J. Agron. Crop Sci. 157, 169–180 (1986).
Haynes, R. J. & Naidu, R. Influence of lime, fertilizer and manure applications on soil organic matter content and soil physical conditions: a review. Nutr. Cycl. Agroecosys. 51, 123–137 (1998).
Wang, Y. et al. Potential benefits of liming to acid soils on climate change mitigation and food security. Glob. Change Biol. 27, 2807–2821 (2021).
Enesi, R. O. et al. Liming remediates soil acidity and improves crop yield and profitability — a meta-analysis. Front. Agron. 5, 1194896 (2023).
Dietzen, C., Harrison, R. & Michelsen-Correa, S. Effectiveness of enhanced mineral weathering as a carbon sequestration tool and alternative to agricultural lime: an incubation experiment. Int. J. Greenh. Gas Control 74, 251–258 (2018).
Te Pas, E. E. E. M., Hagens, M. & Comans, R. N. J. Assessment of the enhanced weathering potential of different silicate minerals to improve soil quality and sequester CO2. Front. Clim. 4, 954064 (2023).
Sposito, G. The Chemistry of Soils (Oxford Univ. Press, 2008).
Holden, F. J. et al. In-field carbon dioxide removal via weathering of crushed basalt applied to acidic tropical agricultural soil. Sci. Total Environ. 955, 176568 (2024).
Larkin, C. S. et al. Quantification of CO2 removal in a large-scale enhanced weathering field trial on an oil palm plantation in Sabah, Malaysia. Front. Clim. 4, 959229 (2022).
Dietzen, C. & Rosing, M. T. Quantification of CO2 uptake by enhanced weathering of silicate minerals applied to acidic soils. Int. J. Greenh. Gas Control 125, 103872 (2023).
Crundwell, F. K. The mechanism of dissolution of forsterite, olivine and minerals of the orthosilicate group. Hydrometallurgy 150, 68–82 (2014).
Kauppi, P., Kämäri, J., Posch, M., Kauppi, L. & Matzner, E. Acidification of forest soils: model development and application for analyzing impacts of acidic deposition in Europe. Ecol. Model. 33, 231–253 (1986).
Manning, D. A. C. Innovation in resourcing geological materials as crop nutrients. Nat. Resour. Res. 27, 217–227 (2018).
Anda, M., Shamshuddin, J. & Fauziah, C. I. Increasing negative charge and nutrient contents of a highly weathered soil using basalt and rice husk to promote cocoa growth under field conditions. Soil. Tillage Res. 132, 1–11 (2013).
Anda, M., Shamshuddin, J. & Fauziah, C. I. Improving chemical properties of a highly weathered soil using finely ground basalt rocks. Catena 124, 147–161 (2015).
Bauters, M. et al. Soil nutrient depletion and tree functional composition shift following repeated clearing in secondary forests of the Congo Basin. Ecosystems 24, 1422–1435 (2021).
Bauters, M. et al. Tropical wood stores substantial amounts of nutrients, but we have limited understanding why. Biotropica 54, 596–606 (2022).
Poeplau, C., Begill, N., Liang, Z. & Schiedung, M. Root litter quality drives the dynamic of native mineral-associated organic carbon in a temperate agricultural soil. Plant Soil https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-023-06127-y (2023).
Schiedung, M., Barré, P. & Peoplau, C. Separating fast from slow cycling soil organic carbon — a multi-method comparison on land use change sites. Geoderma 453, 117154 (2025).
Leuthold, S. J. et al. Quantifying the contribution of MAOM to mineral nitrogen pools under various soil organic matter conditions. Biol. Fertil. Soils 61, 1391–1404 (2025).
Jilling, A. et al. Evidence for the existence and ecological relevance of fast-cycling mineral-associated organic matter. Commun. Earth Env. 6, 690 (2025).
Cotrufo, M. F., Ranalli, M. G., Haddix, M. L., Six, J. & Lugato, E. Soil carbon storage informed by particulate and mineral-associated organic matter. Nat. Geosci. 12, 989–994 (2019).
Lavallee, J. M., Soong, J. L. & Cotrufo, M. F. Conceptualizing soil organic matter into particulate and mineral-associated forms to address global change in the 21st century. Glob. Change Biol. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.14859 (2020).
Sokol, N. W. et al. Reduced accrual of mineral-associated organic matter after two years of enhanced rock weathering in cropland soils, though no net losses of soil organic carbon. Biogeochemistry https://doi.org/10.1007/s10533-024-01160-0 (2024).
Xu, T. et al. Enhanced silicate weathering accelerates forest carbon sequestration by stimulating the soil mineral carbon pump. Glob. Change Biol. 30, e17464 (2024).
Kleber, M. et al. Dynamic interactions at the mineral–organic matter interface. Nat. Rev. Earth Env. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-021-00162-y (2021).
Lehmann, J. et al. Persitence of soil organic carbon caused by functional complexity. Nat. Geosci. 13, 529–534 (2020).
Schmidt, M. W. I. et al. Persistence of soil organic matter as an ecosystem property. Nature 478, 49–56 (2011).
Rowley, M. C., Grand, S. & Verrecchia, É. P. Calcium-mediated stabilisation of soil organic carbon. Biogeochemistry 137, 27–49 (2018).
Rowley, M. C., Grand, S., Spangenberg, J. E. & Verrecchia, E. P. Evidence linking calcium to increased organo-mineral association in soils. Biogeochemistry 153, 223–241 (2021).
Fang, Q. et al. Mineral weathering is linked to microbial priming in the critical zone. Nat. Commun. 14, 345 (2023).
Yan, Y. et al. Wollastonite addition stimulates soil organic carbon mineralization: evidences from 12 land-use types in subtropical China. Catena https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2023.107031 (2023).
Schroeder, J. et al. Liming effects on microbial carbon use efficiency and its potential consequences for soil organic carbon stocks. Soil Biol. Biochem. 191, 109342 (2024).
Malik, A. A. et al. Land use driven change in soil pH affects microbial carbon cycling processes. Nat. Commun. 9, 3591 (2018).
Klemme, A., Rixen, T., Müller, M., Notholt, J. & Warneke, T. Destabilization of carbon in tropical peatlands by enhanced weathering. Commun. Earth Env. 3, 212 (2022).
Dontsova, K., Balogh-Brunstad, Z. & Chorover, J. in Biogeochemical Cycles: Ecological Drivers and Environmental Impact (eds Dontsova, K. et al.) 33–58 (Wiley, 2020).
Calogiuri, T. et al. How earthworms thrive and drive silicate rock weathering in an artificial organo-mineral system. Appl. Geochem. 180, 106271 (2025).
Zamanian, K. et al. Acidification of European croplands by nitrogen fertilization: consequences for carbonate losses, and soil health. Sci. Total Environ. 924, 171631 (2024).
White, A. F. & Brantley, S. L. The effect of time on the weathering of silicate minerals: why do weathering rates differ in the laboratory and field? Chem. Geol. 202, 479–506 (2003).
Bertagni, M. B., Calabrese, S., Cipolla, G., Noto, L. V. & Porporato, A. Advancing enhanced weathering modeling in soils: critical comparison with experimental data. J. Adv. Model. Earth Syst. 17, e2024MS004224 (2025).
Taylor, L. L. et al. Enhanced weathering strategies for stabilizing climate and averting ocean acidification. Nat. Clim. Change 6, 402–406 (2016).
Lehmann, N. et al. Alkalinity responses to climate warming destabilise the Earth’s thermostat. Nat. Commun. 14, 1648 (2023).
Harrington, K. J., Hilton, R. G. & Henderson, G. M. Implications of the riverine response to enhanced weathering for CO2 removal in the UK. Appl. Geochem. 152, 105643 (2023).
Tanaka, E., Yasukawa, K., Ohta, J. & Kato, Y. Enhanced continental chemical weathering during the multiple early Eocene hyperthermals: new constraints from the Southern Indian Ocean. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 331, 192–211 (2022).
Bach, L. T., Gill, S. J., Rickaby, R. E. M., Gore, S. & Renforth, P. CO2 removal with enhanced weathering and ocean alkalinity enhancement: potential risks and co-benefits for marine pelagic ecosystems. Front. Clim. 1, 7 (2019).
Mant, R. C., Jones, D. L., Reynolds, B., Ormerod, S. J. & Pullin, A. S. A systematic review of the effectiveness of liming to mitigate impacts of river acidification on fish and macro-invertebrates. Environ. Pollut. 179, 285–293 (2013).
Gu, X., Heaney, P. J., Reis, F. D. A. A. & Brantley, S. L. Deep abiotic weathering of pyrite. Science 370, eabb8092 (2020).
Burke, A. et al. Sulfur isotopes in rivers: Insights into global weathering budgets, pyrite oxidation, and the modern sulfur cycle. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 496, 168–177 (2018).
Shaughnessy, A. R. et al. Linking stream chemistry to subsurface redox architecture. Water Resour. Res. 59, e2022WR033445 (2023).
Katz, J. L., Reick, M. R., Herzog, R. E. & Parsiegla, K. I. Calcite growth inhibition by iron. Langmuir 9, 1423–1430 (1993).
Nielsen, M. R. et al. Inhibition of calcite growth: combined effects of Mg2+ and SO42−. Cryst. Growth Des. 16, 6199–6207 (2016).
Taylor, M. P., Drysdale, R. N. & Carthew, K. D. The formation and environmental significance of calcite rafts in tropical tufa-depositing rivers of northern Australia. Sedimentology 51, 1089–1101 (2004).
Lorah, M. M. & Herman, J. S. The chemical evolution of a travertine-depositing stream: geochemical processes and mass transfer reactions. Water Resour. Res. 24, 1541–1552 (1988).
Zavadlav, S., Rožič, B., Dolenec, M. & Lojen, S. Stable isotopic and elemental characteristics of recent tufa from a karstic Krka River (south-east Slovenia): useful environmental proxies? Sedimentology 64, 808–831 (2017).
Hartmann, J., Lauerwald, R. & Moosdorf, N. GLORICH — Global river chemistry database. PANGAEA https://doi.org/10.1594/PANGAEA.902360 (2019).
Zhang, S. et al. River chemistry constraints on the carbon capture potential of surficial enhanced rock weathering. Limnol. Oceanogr. 67, S148–S157 (2022).
Zhang, S., Reinhard, C. T., Liu, S., Kanzaki, Y. & Planavsky, N. J. A framework for modeling carbon loss from rivers following terrestrial enhanced weathering. Environ. Res. Lett. 20, 024014 (2025).
Hartmann, J., Lauerwald, R. & Moosdorf, N. A brief overview of the Global River Chemistry database GLORICH. Proc. Earth Planet. Sci. 10, 23–27 (2014).
Bertagni, M. B. & Porporato, A. The carbon-capture efficiency of natural water alkalinization: implications for enhanced weathering. Sci. Total Environ. 838, 156524 (2022).
Zeebe, R. E. & Wolf-Gladrow, D. (eds) CO2 in Seawater: Equilibrium, Kinetics, Isotopes, Vol. 65 (Elsevier, 2001).
Leibowitz, Z. W., Brito, L. A. F., De Lima, P. V., Eskinazi-Sant’Anna, E. M. & Barros, N. O. Significant changes in water pCO2 caused by turbulence from waterfalls. Limnologica 62, 1–4 (2017).
Liu, S. & Raymond, P. A. Hydrologic controls on pCO2 and CO2 efflux in US streams and rivers. Limnol. Oceanogr. Lett. 3, 428–435 (2018).
Tian, M. et al. Stability of alkalinity in the land–ocean transition zone: a geochemical CDR perspective for the Elbe river, Germany. Environ. Res. Lett. 20, 094053 (2025).
Marx, A. et al. A review of CO2 and associated carbon dynamics in headwater streams: a global perspective. Rev. Geophys. 55, 560–585 (2017).
Zhou, M. et al. Mapping the global variation in the efficiency of ocean alkalinity enhancement for carbon dioxide removal. Nat. Clim. Change https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-024-02179-9 (2024).
Hartmann, J. et al. Stability of alkalinity in ocean alkalinity enhancement (OAE) approaches — consequences for durability of CO2 storage. Biogeosciences 20, 781–802 (2023).
Eufrasio, R. M. et al. Environmental and health impacts of atmospheric CO2 removal by enhanced rock weathering depend on nations’ energy mix. Commun. Earth Env. 3, 106 (2022).
Spence, E., Cox, E. & Pidgeon, N. Exploring cross-national public support for the use of enhanced weathering as a land-based carbon dioxide removal strategy. Climatic Change 165, 23 (2021).
Malakar, Y. et al. Navigating stakeholder heterogeneity in carbon dioxide removal governance. Nat. Rev. Clean Technol. 1, 95–105 (2025).
Suhaimi, A., Othman, A. A., Ghazali, A. F. & Kaliani Sundram, V. P. The effect of trust in food safety, perception, product features and consumers’ characteristics on consumers’ purchase decision for safe food: a systematic literature review. Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. Humanit. 32, 583–603 (2024).
Mc Loughlin, E. Protesting the future: the evolution of the European farmer. Anthropol. Today 40, 3–6 (2024).
O’Sullivan, K., Pidgeon, N., Henwood, K., Shirani, F. & Smith, H. Who pays for carbon dioxide removal? Public perceptions of risk and fairness of enhanced rock weathering in the UK. Humanit. Soc. Sci. Commun. 12, 1010 (2025).
Theodoro, S. H. et al. in Routledge Handbook of the Extractive Industries and Sustainable Development https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003001317 (Routledge, 2022).
Manning, D. A. C. & Theodoro, S. H. Enabling food security through use of local rocks and minerals. Extr. Ind. Soc. 7, 480–487 (2020).
Viana, L. S. D. B., Caitano, T. B. D. S. & Pontes, A. N. A remineralização de solos como iniciativa ao desenvolvimento sustentável. RSD 10, e45101421516 (2021).
Cox, E. & Edwards, N. R. Beyond carbon pricing: policy levers for negative emissions technologies. Clim. Policy 19, 1144–1156 (2019).
Lefebvre, D. et al. Assessing the potential of soil carbonation and enhanced weathering through life cycle assessment: a case study for Sao Paulo State, Brazil. J. Clean. Prod. 233, 468–481 (2019).
Hultman, N., Lou, J. & Hutton, S. A review of community co-benefits of the clean development mechanism (CDM). Environ. Res. Lett. 15, 053002 (2020).
Ingram, J., Maye, D. & Reed, M. Contestations in the emerging soil-based carbon economy: towards a research agenda. Sustain. Sci. 20, 597–611 (2025).
Stuyfzand, P. J. An accurate, relatively simple calculation of the saturation index of calcite for fresh to salt water. J. Hydrol. 105, 95–107 (1989).
Plummer, L. N. & Busenberg, E. The solubilities of calcite, aragonite and vaterite in CO2-H2O solutions between 0 and 90°C, and an evaluation of the aqueous model for the system CaCO3-CO2-H2O. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 46, 1011–1040 (1982).
